Teesta Water Treaty/ Agreement

• Teesta is the most important river in the north east of Bangladesh and is the fourth largest river of the country. It originates in the Sikkim valley of the Himalayan Range.
• India Bangladesh at present have Ganges Water Treaty of 1996 (which was Ganges Water Agreement in 1977 for 5 years) where water sharing is 55:45 between India and Bangladesh, in some cases it is 70:30.
• For Teesta Water Sharing, Bangladesh has proposed equal sharing of water and keeping 20% of the waterflow at Gazaldoba Barrage. 
• This means that sharing would be out of remaining 80% water and share will be 40% each for India and Bangladesh. But India has asked for 55% share as is the case with Ganges Water Treaty of 1996.
• India has also proposed 15 years agreement in place of treaty for Teesta Water which is an issue of discussion.

Dastangoi

• It is a 16th century Urdu Oral Story telling Art form.
• One of the earliest references in print to Dastangoi is a 19th century text containing 46 volumes of the adventures of Amir Hamza titled "Dastan e Amir Hamza".
• Dastangoi made its way to Lucknow in th 18th century, aided by the Indian Rebellion of 1857, during which several artists, writers, danstangos moved from Delhi to Lucknow.
• The Art form has been revived since 2005, and has been performed in India, Pakistan and USA.

Pattachitra

• Pattachitra is a general term for traditional Cloth based Scroll Painting in India, specially in Odisha and West Bengal. 
• In the Sanskrit language, "Patta" literally means "cloth" and "Chitra" means "picture". Most of these paintings depict stories of Hindu deities.
• The Pattachitra style is mix of both folk and classical elements but leans more towards folk forms while the dress style has Mughal Influence. 
• Pattachitra style of painting is one of the oldest and most popular art forms of Odisha.
• Lord Jagannath in the present form is being taken as the origin of the patta style.
• The Subject Matter is mostly mythological, religious stories and folk lores. 
• Themes are chiefly on Lord Jagannath and Radha-Krishna, The incarnation of Lord Vishnu, Ramayan, Mahabharata etc.
• The background on which figures are represented is mostly painted in Red Color and is delineated with decorations of flowers etc.
• The whole painting is conceived in the form of a design on a given canvas.
• All colours used in the Paintings are natural.Traditionally the painters are known as chitrakars.

Climate Change Debate

• The Connections between Capitalist Development and Climate Change are very clear.
• Industrial Capitalism which started in 19th Century and intensified in 20th century is based on the Consumption of Fossil Fuels (Oil, Gas and Coal) for meeting the energy requirements of the Capitalistic Goods Production.
• Climate Change is not only about Ecology but it is also about the Economy and Economic Growth.
• GDP growth rates of the developed and developing countries has been synonymous with growth in green house gas emissions. Be it China, USA or Japan who are the biggest emitters of greenhouse gases, their growth and wealth is directly linked to carbon emission.
• The 1992 UNFCCC is based on the principle that Industrialized countries have created the problem of climate change. So, they have to reduce their emissions first so that less developed countries can catch up in their economic growth.
• In 1992, Developed countries accounted for 70% of the annual green house gas emissions, which in 2012 (20 years later) has reduced to 43% due to shifting of Manufacturing from developed Countries to Developing Countries. 
• The 21st meeting of the conference of parties (COP21) of the UNFCCC (United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change) which will be held in Paris, will discuss on agreement on Sustainable Development Goals which is bound to replace the Millenium Development Goals after 2015.
• Millenium Development Goals (MDGs) =>>>>>  SustainableDevelopment Goals (SDGs)
• We can not eradicate poverty without fighting the climate change. Poor contribute less to climate change. So, Climate Change negotiation is about the how RICH people can reduce their emissions so that the POOR can grow. 
• At the Core of the Climate Change Problem lies the injustice or inequitable access to sustainable development.
• The effect of Climate Change will be devastating for even those countries who emit less like Bangladesh and Maldives in the form of sea level rise or floods. So, the need of the hour is the mutual collaboration to reduce the green house gas emission by changing the way we are developing our economies. 
• The Challenge lies in shifting to Cleaner Energy sources and this is where Climate Finance Fund is required.
• In Paris 2015, international negotiations are expected to make pledges or set targets to reduce emissions so that, global temperature which is now moving towards an increase of more than 4 degree Celsius should be contained under 2 degree Celsius guard rail.   

Geo Politics

• It is the theory that describes the relation between politics and territory 
• It is a method of foreign policy analysis which seeks to understand, explain and predict International Political Behavior  primarily in terms of Geographical Variables.
• The geographical variables generally are: 
• Geographical Location of the country or countries in question
• Size of the Countries Involved
• Climate of the Region of Countries and its topography
• Demography
• Natural resources available in the territory 
• Technological development etc.

Money & Finance Bill

Money Bill

Under article 110(1) of the Constitution, a Bill is deemed to be a Money Bill if it contains only provisions dealing with all or any of the following matters, namely:

(a)  the imposition, abolition, remission, alteration or regulation of any tax;

(b)  the regulation of the borrowing of money or the giving of any guarantee by theGovernment of India, or the amendment of the law with respect to any financial obligationsundertaken or to be undertaken by the Government of India;

(c)  the custody of the Consolidated Fund or the Contingency Fund of India, the payment ofmoneys into or the withdrawal of moneys from any such fund;

(d)  the appropriation of moneys out of the Consolidated Fund of India;

(e)  the declaring of any expenditure to be expenditure charged on the Consolidated Fund of India or the increasing of the amount of any such expenditure;

(f)    the receipt of money on account of the Consolidated Fund of India or the public account of India or the custody or issue of such money or the audit of the accounts of the Union or of a State; or

(g)   any matter incidental to any of the matters specified in sub-clauses (a) to (f).

A Bill is not deemed to be Money Bill by reason only that it provides for the imposition of fines or other pecuniary penalties, or for the demand or payment of fees for licences or fees for services rendered, or by reason that it provides for the imposition, abolition, remission, alteration or regulation of any tax by any local authority or body for local purposes.

Appropriation Bill

After the General Discussion on the Budget proposals and Voting on Demands for Grants have been completed, Government introduces the Appropriation Bill. The Appropriation Bill is intended to give authority to Government to incur expenditure from and  out of the Consolidated Fund of India. The procedure for passing this Bill is the same as in the case of other money Bills.

Finance Bill 

The Finance Bill seeking to give effect to the Government’s taxation proposals which is introduced in Lok Sabha immediately after the presentation of the General Budget, is taken up for consideration and passing after the Appropriation Bill is passed. However, certain provisions in the Bill relating to levy and collection of fresh duties or variations in the existing duties come into effect immediately on the expiry of the day on which the Bill is introduced by virtue of a declaration under the Provisional Collection of Taxes Act. Parliament has to pass the Finance Bill within 75 days of its introduction.

Money Bill as distinguished from Financial Bill

Whereas a Money Bill deals solely with matters specified in article 110(1) (a) to (g) of the Constitution, a Financial Bill does not exclusively deal with all or any of the matters specified in the said article that is to say it contains some other provisions also.

Only those financial bills are money bills which contain exclusively those matters which are mentioned in Article 110 of the Constitution. 

The financial bills (I) and (II), on the other hand, have been dealt with in Article 117 of the Constitution.

Financial Bills (I)

A financial bill (I) is a bill that contains not only any or all the matter mentioned in Article 110, but also other matters of general legislation. A bill that contains a borrowing clause, but does not exclusively deal with borrowing. In two respects, a financial bill (I) is similar to a money bill (a) both of them can be introduced only in the Lok Sabha and not in the Raya Sabha, on the recommendation of the president. A financial bill (I) is governed by the same legislative procedure applicable to an ordinary bill, it can be either rejected or amended by the Rajya Sabha than an amendment other than for reduction or abolition of a tax cannot be moved in either House without the recommendation of the president.

Financial Bills (II)

A financial bill (II) contains provisions involving expenditure from the Consolidated Fund of India, but does not include any of the matters mentioned in Article 110.

The only special feature of this bill is that it cannot be passed by either House of Parliament unless the President has recommended to that House the consideration of the bill. Financial bill (II) can be introduced in either House of Parliament and recommendation of the President is not necessary for its introduction.

When the bill is presented to the President, he can either give his assent to the bill or withhold his assent to the bill or return the bill for reconsideration of the Houses. 

Quantitative easing (QE)

Quantitative easing (QE) is an unconventional monetary policy used by central banks to stimulate the economy when standard monetary policy has become ineffective.

A central bank implements quantitative easing by buying specified amounts of financial assets from commercial banks and other private institutions, thus raising the prices of those financial assets and lowering their yield, while simultaneously increasing the monetary base.

(In economics, the monetary base in a country is defined as the portion of the commercial banks' reserves that are maintained in accounts with their central bank plus the total currency circulating in the public (which includes the currency, also known as vault cash, that is physically held in the banks' vault). The monetary base should not be confused with the money supply which consists of the total currency circulating in the public plus the non-bank deposits with commercial banks.)

The Expansionary monetary policy is used to stimulate the economy which involves the central bank buying short-term government bonds in order to lower short-term market interest rates.However, when short-term interest rates have reached or are close to reaching zero, this method can no longer work. 

Quantitative easing may then be used by monetary authorities to further stimulate the economy by purchasing assets of longer maturity than short-term government bonds, and thereby lowering longer-term interest rates further out on the yield curve.

Dependency theory

Dependency theory is the notion that resources flow from a "periphery" of poor and underdeveloped states to a "core" of wealthy states, enriching the latter at the expense of the former. 

It is a central contention of dependency theory that poor states are impoverished and rich ones enriched by the way poor states are integrated into the "world system".

The premises of dependency theory are that:

1. Poor nations provide natural resources, cheap labour, a destination for obsolete technology, and markets for developed nations, without which the latter could not have the standard of living they enjoy.
2. Wealthy nations actively perpetuate a state of dependence by various means. This influence may be multifaceted, involving economics, media control, politics, banking and finance, education, culture, and sport.

The theory arose as a reaction to modernization theory, an earlier theory of development which held that all societies progress through similar stages of development, that today's underdeveloped areas are thus in a similar situation to that of today's developed areas at some time in the past, and that therefore the task in helping the underdeveloped areas out of poverty is to accelerate them along this supposed common path of development, by various means such as investment, technology transfers, and closer integration into the world market. 

Dependency theory rejected this view, arguing that underdeveloped countries are not merely primitive versions of developed countries, but have unique features and structures of their own; and, importantly, are in the situation of being the weaker members in a world market economy.

Narrative analysis

Narrative analysis, like the name implies, centers around the study of stories or accounts – usually of individuals, but also of groups, societies, and cultures.

Narrative analysis or narrative methods are a product of what was termed the "narrative turn" in social science research, which has been described and analyzed as a response to the lack of human stories in traditional social science in the 1960’s. 

Early works delineating the historical foundations of narrative methods included works on life histories and oral narratives. The focus of these methods were life stories that described the personal experiences of poverty, inequality, sexism, and many other social and cultural experiences.

Approaches to narrative analysis are four different analytic approaches: 

• Thematic Analysis, 
• Structural Analysis, 
• Dialogic/performance analysis, and 
• Visual Analysis

1. Thematic analysis relies on categorizing accounts or aspects of accounts that are being told.
2. Structural analysis looks into the ways in which the narratives are structured and what the language in the stories does both on the textual as well as the cultural level. 
3. Dialogic/performance analysis focuses on the difficulty in analyzing accounts that are co-constructed or performed. 
4. Lastly, visual analysis focuses on the analysis of all visual media including art, video, and digital media.

Researchers can collect data for narrative analysis using any means that involves capturing an account. Common means are through video, interview, and participant observation though none of these means are mutually exclusive.

Methodological dualism

Methodological dualism is an epistemological position which holds that it is necessary, based on our current levels of knowledge and understanding, to utilize a different methodology in our attempts to analyze the actions of human beings than the methodology used in the physical sciences (i.e. physics, biology etc...) to study external events.

This position is based on the presupposition that humans differ fundamentally from other objects in the external world in that humans act, or in other words use means to achieve ends, while other objects in nature, such as stones, planets, molecules and atoms do not.

Furthermore, we do not at present know how external events affect an individual's "thoughts, ideas, and judgements of value" and this ignorance forces us to adopt a dualistic approach to the two classes of phenomena.

This view was emphasized by Ludwig von Mises and formed the central basis of his epistemology. 

Methodological dualism, especially in Mises's case, was a reaction to the notion held by groups such as the logical positivists that the study of human action, and as such economics, should utilize the same experimental scientific method as the physical sciences, a view that has been referred to by Mises, Friedrich Hayek and others as scientism. 

The alternative methodology that Mises developed and utilized for his study of human action was praxeology, which formed the basis for his work in economics. Praxeology differs from the mainstream neoclassical approach to economics, in that the mainstream approach utilizes the same overall methodology as the physical sciences in an attempt to develop economic theories and predict future economic.

Social Class

When sociologists talk of social class, they refer to a group of individuals who occupy a similar position in the economic system of production.

• Upper Class – Elite
• Upper Middle Class
• Lower Middle Class
• Working Class
• Poor

There are two classical sociologists who are most important in the discussions about class – Karl Marx and Max Weber.

Karl Marx:

Assertion that there were two great classes – 

• the owners of the means of production (capitalists) and 
• the workers

The only thing that the workers owned was their ability to work, what Marx called “labor power.” Because owners (capitalists) paid wages to workers and could for the most part determine that wage, owners had power over workers. Marx felt that the lack of power of workers was the source of exploitation and the basis of class conflict.  

• Marx argued that owners and workers developed ideas, understandings about their positions and this Marx called class consciousness. 
• When owners convinced workers that their situations were compatible – Marx called this false consciousness.

Although Marx talked mainly about the two great classes – owners and workers – he was aware as well of a third category which he called petit bourgeoisie – literally little middle class and these were owners of own small businesses.  Finding a location for this group was difficult because they lacked the power if the owners and at the same time had control over their work and wages unlike the workers. Moreover, according to Marx, sometimes they identified with the owners and sometimes with the workers.

Max Weber:  

The other sociologist was Max Weber. He argued that class referred to economic interests. It was a quantifiable economic position – groups that share a common set of life-chances and circumstances. 

• But Weber also talked about status, prestige – important part was awareness of its value. 
• Weber also talked about party – essentially putting the class interests into action.

Annihilation of Caste: B R Ambedkar views

In The Annihilation of Caste, Ambedkar, probably for the first time, raised many profound questions with respect to caste. 

First, he rejected the defence of caste on the basis of division of labour and argued that it was not merely a division of labour but a division of labourers. The former was voluntary and depended upon one's choice and aptitude and, therefore, rewarded efficiency. The latter was involuntary, forced, killed initiative and resulted in job aversion and inefficiency. 

He argued that caste could not be defended on the basis of purity of blood, though pollution is a hallmark of the caste system.

According to Ambedkar, caste destroyed the concept of ethics and morality. To quote him: “The effect of caste on the ethics of the Hindus is simply deplorable. Caste has killed public spirit. Caste has destroyed the sense of public charity. Caste has made public opinion impossible. A Hindu's public is his caste. His responsibility is to his caste. His loyalty is restricted only to his caste. Virtue has become caste-ridden, and morality has become caste-bound.

He quoted from D.R. Bhandarkar's paper “Foreign Elements in the Hindu Population” that “there is hardly any class or caste in India which has not a foreign strain in it, (and that) there is an admixture of alien blood not only among the warrior classes – the Rajputs and the Marathas – but also among the Brahmins who are under the happy delusion that they are free from all foreign elements.” Ambedkar thus argued that caste had no scientific basis. He painfully maintained that Hindu society was a collection of castes, fixed in watertight compartments with graded hierarchy that made an associated corporate life virtually impossible.

He suggested inter-caste marriage as the remedy to destroy caste.

Ambedkar was convinced that political empowerment was key to the socio-economic development of the untouchables.

Cultural pluralism:-

It is a concept that says that individual ethnic groups have a right to exist on their own terms within the larger society while retaining their unique cultural heritages.

Significance:- 

As a concept cultural pluralism is an alternative to the “melting pot” view that immigrants should assimilate to dominant culture by abandoning their own cultures, languages, and other traditions. Cultural pluralism is often confused with Multiculturalism. Multiculturalism lacks the requirement of a dominant culture.

Critiques of Cultural Pluralism:-

Cultural pluralism has been attacked for justifying cultural separatism—that is, a transformation to a “nation of nations” similar to what is found in Switzerland or a segregated America of ethnically pure residential enclaves. 

A second critique is that cultural pluralists assume that because ethnic traditions are static they suppress individuality. 

Third, cultural pluralists are attacked for a belief that ethnic identity is primary and thus more powerful than other identities. 

Anti-Critic:-

Cultural pluralists respond that cultural pluralism thrives in an integrated, not a segregated, society. They accept cultures as internally dynamic, changing and adapting over time with plenty of room for diversity inside each culture. Cultural attachments are seen as important but not exclusive.

Sociology of Gender

The term gender role is used to signify all those things that a person says or does to disclose himself/herself as having the status of boy or man, girl or woman, respectively.

In sociology Gender is attached with multiple sociological concepts. Some of them are given below:-

• Gender and Socialization
• Gender and the Division of Labour 
• Gender and Violence
• Gender and Globalisation 

Gender and Socialization:-

By the time children reach the age of 2, many they acquire a firm sense of themselves as male or female, a gender identity that remains throughout life. In addition, at pre-school stage, children develop a firm awareness of gender stereotypes, insisting that certain activities or items of clothing are not for girls and others not for boys. Yet Gender Identity does not automatically follow from biological sex.

Gender and the Division of Labour:-

Before industrialization, economic activity, which centred around agricultural work, crafts and so on, was organized by households. Household members, whether male or female, young or old, contributed to the family's livelihood. Although women might do some types of work and men others, depending on region and class, the distinction between men as breadwinners and women as housewives didn't characterized pre-industrial divisions of labour.

Industrialization shifted much productive activity to factories, shops and offices. This separation of work from home signalled a profound change in gender relations and gender discourse. The home came to be understood not as the site of a family enterprise, but as a refuge from the world of work. Women were defined as the keepers of the home, as it was seen as their nature to create harmony and virtue rather than services and goods.

Gender and Violence:-

social arenas in which violence commonly takes place

(1) in the family—including domestic violence,infanticide, and traditional practices such as female genital mutilation, foot binding, and bride burning; 

(2) in the community—including rape, sexual assault, sexual harassment, and commercialized violence such as sexual slavery, labor exploitation, female migrant workers; and 

(3) by the State—including violence against women in detention, and in situations of armed conflict such as systematic war rape.

In order to address and end gendered violence, solutions must address both the root causes and interpersonal manifestations of gender roles and power relations in order to ensure a balance of power at all levels of society.

Gender and Globalisation:-

Globalization refers to the increasingly global relationships of culture, people and economic activity. Globalization impacts female equality on a large and international scale, both negatively and positively. With continuous changes in international relations, the perception of feminism in Western and Non western societies is frequently revised.

Cunningham Circular

Cunningham Circular played a very important role in shaping the freedom struggle in Assam. While the entire country was getting ready for the start of the Civil Disobedience Movement in 1930, students in Assam played a key role in the freedom struggle. 

To stem the students' participation in the Civil Disobedience Movement, the 'Cunning Circular' was implemented in 1930 by the British. This ruling forbade students from participating in political activities and so, evoked strong response. 

Students quit schools in protest and many educational institutions like Kamrup Academy of Guwahati and Sibsagar Vidyapeeth were established.

Six Schools of Indian Philosophy

Yoga	Started by Patanjali Practical methods for direct experience:  Yoga systematically deals with all of the levels of one's being, striving to experience the eternal center of consciousness.  Yoga is best described in the Yoga Sutras and involves systematic witnessing of your inner states, so as to experientially go beyond all of them to the center of consciousness.  Yoga is often called Sankhya-Yoga, as Yoga contains the practical methods to realize in direct experience the truths of Sankhya philosophy
Sankhya	Started by Kapil Muni Framework of manifestation:  Sankhya philosophy offers a framework for all the levels of manifestation, from the subtlest to the grossest.  Sankhya comes from samyag akhyate, which literally means that which explains the whole.  Sankhya deals with prakriti (matter), purusha(consciousness), buddhi or mahat (intelligence), ahamkara (I-am-ness), three gunas (elements of stability, activity, and lightness), mind (manas), cognitive and active senses (indriyas), and the five subtle and gross elements (earth, water, fire, air, and space). In light of its breadth, it contains all of the domains of Vaisheshika, Nyaya, and Mimasa, which are described below.
Vedanta	Based on Upnaishads (Shankaracharya is founder) Contemplative self-inquiry:  Vedanta philosophy and practice provides contemplative methods of self-inquiry leading to the realization of one's true nature, that which is not subject to death, decay, or decomposition.  A major key of these practices is contemplation on the Mahavakyas.  The teachings of Vedanta are best captured in the books of the Upanishads.  The text, Vivekachudamini (Crest Jewel of Discrimination) by Adi Shankaracharya is an excellent source.
Vaisheshika	Started by Prashastapada Physical sciences:  The Vaisheshika system emphasizes the physical sciences such as chemistry.  It includes exploring the elements of earth, water, fire, air and space, as well as time, mind and soul.  Focus is on salvation through recognition of atomic nature of universe.
Nyaya	Started by Gautam Rishi  Reasoning:  The Nyaya system deals with logic, the process of reasoning.  Doubt is considered a prerequisite for philosophical inquiry.  Other systems of Indian philosophy draw on this process.
Mimasa	Started by Jaimini Freedom through action:  The Mimasa system pursues freedom through action.  It has a detailed philosophy related to ritual, worship and ethical conduct, which developed into the philosophy of karma.

Ancient Art

Kingdom	Capital	Art
Pallavas	Kanchipuram	Shore Temple at Mahabalipuram
		Kailasanatha Temple at Kanchipuram
		Shiva as Natraja is specimen of Pallava Art
		Vaikunthperumala Temple noted for its Vimana
Cholas	Tanjavur	Brihdeshwara Temple at Tanjavur built by Rajaraja Chola, striking feature is vimana
		Bronze Sculptures of Natraja reached the heights of glory during Cholas reign
		Bharat's Natyashashtra are shown in this temple
Pandyas	Madurai	Meenakshi Temple at Madurai
		Nellaiappar Temple at Tirunelveli
		They excelled in making Gopurams and the focus was more on Gopurams rather than Vimanas and Shikhara
Hoyasalas	Mysore	Temples at Belur, Halebid etc.
		Temples with intricate carvings and pillars
Chandelas	Khajuraho	Temples at Khajuraho
		Kalinjar Fort
		Focus at making beautiful Shikharas
Solankis	Anhilwara(Patan)	Jain Temples at Mount Abu
Gurjar(Pratihar)	Kannauj	Mihir Bhoj was the most famous ruler
		Notable sculptures of this period, include Viswaroopa form of Vishnu and Marriage of Siva and Parvati from Kannauj.

Vegetation

Fig: 120 from CPHG book 

In physical geography, a tundra is a biome where the tree growth is hindered by low temperatures and short growing seasons. Tundra means a treeless mountain tract.

There are three (3) types of tundra: 

1. Arctic tundra
2. Alpine tundra
3. Antarctic tundra

In a tundra, the vegetation is composed of dwarf shrubs, sedges and grasses,mosses, and lichens. Scattered trees grow in some tundras. 

• Arctic tundra occurs in the far Northern Hemisphere, north of the taiga belt. The word "tundra" usually refers only to the areas where the subsoil is permafrost, or permanently frozen soil.
• Antarctic tundra occurs on Antarctica and on several Antarctic and sub antarctic islands, including South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands and the Kerguelen Islands. 
• Alpine tundra does not contain trees because the climate and soils at high altitude block tree growth. Alpine tundra is distinguished from arctic tundra in that alpine tundra typically does not have permafrost, and alpine soils are generally better drained than arctic soils.

Deciduous Forests:- 

In a more general sense, deciduous means "the dropping of a part that is no longer needed" or "falling away after its purpose is finished". In plants it is the result of natural processes. In botany and horticulture, deciduous plants,including trees, shrubs and herbaceous  perennials, are those that lose all of their leaves for part of the year.

Two distinctive types of deciduous forest are found growing around the world.

• Temperate deciduous forest biomes are plant communities distributed in North and South America, Asia, Southern slopes of the Himalayas, Europe and for cultivation purposes in Oceania. They have formed under climatic conditions which have great seasonable temperature variability with growth occurring during warm summers and leaf drop in autumn and dormancy during cold winters. These seasonally distinctive communities have diverse life forms that are impacted greatly by the seasonality of their climate, mainly temperature and precipitation rates. These varying and regionally different ecological conditions produce distinctive forest plant communities in different regions.
• Tropical and subtropical deciduous forest biomes have developed in response not to seasonal temperature variations but to seasonal rainfall patterns. During prolonged dry periods the foliage is dropped to conserve water and prevent death from drought. Leaf drop is not seasonally dependent as it is in temperate climates, and can occur any time of year and varies by region of the world. Even within a small local area there can be variations in the timing and duration of leaf drop; different sides of the same mountain and areas that have high water tables or areas along streams and rivers can produce a patchwork of leafy and leafless trees.

Temperate coniferous forest:- is a terrestrial biome found in temperate regions of the world with warm summers and cool winters and adequate rainfall to sustain a forest. In most temperate coniferous forests, evergreen conifers predominate, while some are a mix of conifers and broad leaf evergreen trees and/or broad leaf deciduous trees. Temperate evergreen forests are common in the coastal areas of regions that have mild winters and heavy rainfall, or inland in drier climates or mountain areas. Coniferous forests can be found in the United States, Canada, Europe, and Asia.