Interpretative Sociology

Max Weber is the main thinker in the interpretative sociology.  Weber is known for his anti-positivist approach.

Interpretation means to understand and same is the meaning of the word Verstehen which is a German Word which means "To Understand". 

Interpretative sociology (Verstehende Soziologie) is the study of society that concentrates on the meanings people associate to their social world.

Interpretative sociology strives to show that reality is constructed by people themselves in their daily lives.

Verstehen roughly translates to "meaningful understanding" or "putting yourself in the shoes of others to see things from their perspective." 

Interpretive sociology differs from positivist sociology in three ways:

1. Interpretive sociology deals with the meaning attached to behavior, unlike positivist sociology which focuses on action.
2. Interpretive sociology sees reality as being constructed by people, unlike positivist sociology which sees an objective reality "out there".
3. Interpretive sociology relies on qualitative data, unlike positivist sociology which tends to make use of quantitative data.

Family and Household

Functions of the Family:-

Nurturing of children.

Economic cooperation.

Provide child with models from whom they can learn gender appropriate roles.

Definition of the Family:-

A group composed of a woman and her dependent children, with at least one adult man joined through marriage or blood relationship.

In most societies, families constitute households or households are built around families.

Forms of Family:-

Conjugal Family: formed on the basis of marital ties

Consanguineal Family: consists of related women, their brothers, and the women's offspring's

Households:-

Basic residential units that implement :

Economic Production

Consumption

Inheritance 

Child Rearing

Shelter

Civil Services Code, UK

The Civil Service is an integral and key part of the Government of the United Kingdom. It supports the government of the day in developing and implementing its policies, and in delivering public services. 

The Civil Service Code, forms part of the terms and conditions of every civil servant.  It was first introduced in 1996 and has been updated several times since.

The Civil Service Commission has two important roles in relation to the Civil Service Code. 

• The Commission hears complaints under the Code from civil servants. 
• The Commission also works with Departments to help them with their promotion of the Code.

The Civil Service Code outlines the core values of the Civil Service:

• Honesty- is being truthful and open
• Integrity- is putting the obligations of public service above your own personal interests;
• Impartiality- is acting solely according to the merits of the case and serving equally well governments of different political persuasions ; and
• Objectivity-is basing your advice and decisions on rigorous analysis of the evidence

It describes the standards of behavior expected of individual civil servants against each of these four values.

If a civil servant is asked to do something which conflicts with the values in the Code, or is aware that another civil servant is acting in conflict with the values, he or she should raise a concern within their own department.

Their department should investigate their concern. If they are dissatisfied with the outcome of the investigation they may bring a complaint to the Civil Service Commission. The Commission may also hear a complaint direct.

Seven Sins of Mahatma Gandhi

Mahatma Gandhi said that seven things will destroy us. These were first published in his newspaper Young India in 1925. 

All of them have to do with social and political conditions, which is very interesting to note.

• Wealth Without Work
• Pleasure Without Conscience
• Knowledge Without Character
• Commerce (Business) Without Morality (Ethics)
• Science Without Humanity
• Religion Without Sacrifice
• Politics Without Principle

Davis–Moore Theory

The Davis–Moore hypothesis, sometimes referred to as the Davis–Moore theory, is a central claim within the structural functionalist paradigm of sociological theory, and was advanced by Kingsley Davis and Wilbert E. Moore in a paper published in 1945. The hypothesis is an attempt to explain social stratification. 

As a structural functionalist theory, it is also associated with Talcott Parsons and Robert K. Merton.

The hypothesis is an attempted explanation of social stratification, based on the idea of "functional necessity." 

Davis and Moore argue that the most difficult jobs in any society are the most necessary and require the highest rewards and compensation to sufficiently motivate individuals to fill them. 

Once the roles are filled, the division of labor functions properly, based on the notion of organic solidarity advanced by Emile Durkheim.

This argument has been criticized as fallacious from a number of different angles. 

• The first problem is that they posit rewards as a guarantee of performance, when rewards are supposed to be based on merit in their argument. It is argued that if abilities were inherent, there would be no need of a reward system. 
• 
  
• Secondly, Davis and Moore do not clearly indicate why some positions should be worth more than others, other than the fact that they are remunerated more, claiming, for example, that teachers are equally, if not more, functionally necessary than athletes and movie stars, yet, they receive significantly lower incomes. 

These critics have suggested that structural inequality (inherited wealth, family power, etc.), is itself a cause of individual success or failure, rather than a consequence of it. 

Class analysts point out that it is not merely income that determines inequality but wealth, access to social networks, and cultural practices that put some individuals in better positions than others to succeed.

Davis and Moore argue like this:

• They claim that no society is un-stratified. So, inequality is universal.

• This universal nature of stratification must mean that inequality is not only unavoidable, but indeed necessary to the smooth working of society.

• Then Davis and Moore set out to explain how inequality benefits society. (They assume it is beneficial then try to explain how it must be beneficial.)

• They ask: Why are some positions in society higher than others? Why do the higher positions carry more status and rewards? The answer they come up with is this:

1. Societies are stratified because inequality fulfills an important need of all social systems.
2. Society must distribute its members among the various positions in society.
3. People have to be motivated to fill certain positions and perform their duties.
4. Filling the positions within a social structure is a basic need of any society. This is accomplished through the unequal distribution of rewards.

“Any society must distribute its individuals and induce them to perform the duties of their positions. It must solve the problem of motivation at two levels: to instill in the proper individuals the desire to occupy certain positions and, once in these positions the desire to perform the duties attached to them” (Davis 1948, pp. 366-367).

5. Not all positions are equally pleasant, equally important, or equal in terms of required talent and ability.

6. There must be rewards to provide inducements and those rewards must be distributed unequally to assure that all positions get filled. The inequality of rewards corresponds to what Davis and Moore call functional importance of the position. 

Davis and Moore state:

“Modern medicine, for example, is within the mental capacity of most individuals, but a medical education is so expensive and burdensome that virtually none would undertake it if the position of M.D. did not carry a reward commensurate with the sacrifice.”

7. The most important positions are rewarded the most--the least important are rewarded the least.

• On the issue of functional importance, Davis and Moore state: “two factors...determine the relative rank of different positions. In general those positions convey the best reward, and have the highest rank which (a) have the greatest importance for the society and (b) require the greatest training or talent.”

• This means that, as Davis and Moore say: “a position does not bring power and prestige because it draws a high income. Rather it draws a high income because it is functionally important and the available personnel is for one reason or another scarce.”

 • So that...

“Social inequality is thus an unconsciously evolved device by which societies insure that the most important positions are conscientiously filled by the most qualified persons. Hence, every society, no matter how simple or complex, must differentiate persons in terms of both prestige and esteem, and must therefore possess a certain amount of institutionalized inequality.”

• Ranking of positions occurs according to functional importance and the amount of training or talent associated with the position. High income, power, prestige of a particular position are due to functional importance or scarcity of trained personnel.

3. Summary of the Davis-Moore Thesis:

• Social positions have varying degrees of functional importance.
• Talented and trained individuals are scarce because acquisition of training and skills requires people to be sufficiently motivated to pursue them.
• Stratification, or unequal distribution of rewards ensures that the most talented and trained individuals will fulfill the social roles of greatest importance.

The basic tone of the Davis-Moore thesis, as Irving Zeitlin says, is that, “The rich and powerful and prestigious are at the top because they are the most talented and the best trained and also because they make the greatest contribution to society’s preservation.”

4. Criticism of the Davis-Moore Thesis: The Nature of Social Mobility:

a. Scarcity of rewards is not a “natural” scarcity but rather an artificial scarcity--especially within a system of private property in production--property is, for example, exclusionary rights.

b. Some rewards are not functionally determined at all, but rather must be understood within the context of wealth ownership and institution of inheritance.

• Is wealth ownership functionally important?

• What does the institution of inheritance imply about qualifications, talent, or skill associated with ownership and the power that ownership brings with it?

* Associated idea from Durkheim (See Russell, p. 110):

“One of the problems of modern societies, which Durkheim sought to remedy through state action, was the chaotic and inefficient ways in which labor forces were trained and rewarded. Inept progeny of rich tycoons took over companies while intelligent children of workers went uneducated. Modern societies allocated their collective labor forces inefficiently, wasting talented but poor people in humble positions and suffering from the inept sons of the privileged in powerful positions. To remedy this problem, Durkheim advocated using public schooling to sift and winnow children according to their native abilities,educationally prepare them according to their potential--what later became known as tracking--and see that they ended up in jobs that paid accordingly.”

c. Control of access to training by powerful and privileged groups creates artificial  scarcity of talent.

d. Davis and Moore claimed that their theory was applicable to all forms of society. Critics of the Davis-Moore viewpoint argued that it did not make much sense in non-competitive societies--for example feudalism, where all positions are distributed not by merit but by birth. And, more importantly what about those aspects of a class society that do not operate like merit systems?

• The issue of ascribed vs. achieved status was brought up. The distribution of positions cannot be understood merely by achievement but achievement itself is conditioned by ascription of status.

• In other words, ascribed statuses condition access to opportunity structures. Weber’s concept of life chances  is relevant here. Opportunities for achievement are not distributed equally. Class itself can be though of as implying a set of life chances and obstacles to social mobility.

Melvin Tumin vs. Davis-Moore Thesis:

a. 1953--Melvin Tumin’s “Some Principles of Stratification: A Critical Analysis” was published in the American Sociological Review.

b. Tumin’s criticism rested on this point:

• The functional importance of varying social positions has not been demonstrated, nor can such a demonstration be made. “Are engineers functionally more important to a factory than unskilled workers.” 

Here, planning vs. implementation are considered complementary functions of production. We must also consider the problem of deskilling and the control of workers (see Braverman--the detailed division of labor).

 c. Scarcity of talent is not an adequate explanation of stratification. There is in stratification systems artificial limits to the development of whatever potential skills there are in society. For example, wealth, education, professional associations, etc. ...these things assure not that the best and the brightest will be selected for powerful positions but that much of society’s potential talent will go un-utilized.

d. The universality of stratification does not mean it is necessarily beneficial or inevitable. Just because stratification is universal does not mean it is a vital aspect or system need of society. Stratification is not positively functionally for a society--it is dysfunctional.

Tumin states (see Levine, p. 108):

“Social stratification systems function to provide the elite with the political power necessary to procure acceptance and dominance of an ideology which rationalizes the status quo, whatever it may be as “logical,” “natural,” and “morally right.” In this manner, social stratification systems function as essentially conservative influences in the society in which they are found.”

Value Free Sociology

Sociology as a value-free science:-

The subject matter of sociology is human behavior in society. All social behavior is guided by values. Thus the study of social behavior can never be value-free if value freedom is interpreted in the sense of absence of values because values of the society under investigation form a part of the social facts to be studied by sociology. 

Moreover social research is in itself a type of social behavior and is guided by the value of search for true knowledge. 

Max Weber says about value-free sociology means that the sociologist while carrying social research must confine called value relevance. 

Thus the values can operate at three levels:

At the level of philological interpretation. At the level of ethical interpretation in assigning value to an object of enquiry. At the level of rational interpretation in which the sociologists seeks the meaningful relationship between phenomena in terms of causal analysis. The point of value interpretation is to establish the value towards which an activity is directed. Sociologists should observe value neutrality while conducting social research. It means that he should exclude ideological or non -scientific assumption from research. He should not make evaluative judgment about empirical evidence.  Value judgment should be restricted to sociologists' area of technical competence. He should make his own values open and clear and refrain from advocating particular values.  Value neutrality enables the social scientists to fulfill the basic value of scientific enquiry that is search for true knowledge. Thus sociology being a science cherishes the goal of value neutrality.  According to Alvin Gouldner value-free principle did enhance the autonomy of sociology where it could steadily pursue basic problems rather than journalistic-ally react to passing events and allowed it more freedom to pursue questions uninteresting either to the respectable or to the rebellious.  It made sociology freer as Comte had wanted it to be -to pursue all its own theoretical implications. Value free principle did contribute to the intellectual growth and emancipation of the enterprise.Value-free doctrine enhanced freedom from moral compulsiveness; it permitted a partial escape from the parochial prescriptions of the sociologists' local or native culture. Effective internalization of the value-free principle has always encouraged at least a temporary suspension of the moralizing reflexes built into the sociologist by his own society. The value-free doctrine has a paradoxical potentiality; it might enable men to make better value judgments rather than none. It could encourage a habit of mind that might help men in discriminating between their punitive drives and their ethical sentiments. However in practice it has been extremely difficult to fulfill this goal of value neutrality. Values creep in various stages in sociological research.  According to Gunnar Myrdal total value neutrality is impossible. 'Chaos does not organize itself into cosmos. We need view points.' Thus in order to carry out social research viewpoints are needed which form the basis of hypothesis which enables the social scientists to collect empirical data. These view-points involve valuations and also while formulating the hypothesis. Thus a sociologist has to be value frank and should make the values which have got incorporated in the choice of the topic of the research of the formulation of hypothesis clear and explicit at the very outset in the research. The value-free doctrine is useful both to those who want to escape from the world and to those who want to escape into it. They think of sociology as a way of getting ahead in the world by providing them with neutral techniques that may be sold on the open market to any buyer. The belief that it is not the business of sociologist to make value judgments is taken by some to mean that the market on which they can vend their skills is unlimited. Some sociologists have had no hesitation about doing market research designed to sell more cigarettes although well aware of the implications of recent cancer research.  According to Gouldner the value-free doctrine from Weber's standpoint is an effort to compromise two of the deepest traditions of the western thought, reason and faith but that his arbitration seeks to safeguard the romantic residue in modern man. Like Freud, Weber never really believed in an enduring peace or in a final resolution of this conflict. What he did was to seek a truce through the segregation of the contenders by allowing each to dominate in different spheres of life.

Gender Budgeting

Gender Budgeting (GB) is a powerful tool for achieving gender mainstreaming so as to ensure that benefits of development reach women as much as men. 
It is not an accounting exercise but an ongoing process of keeping a gender perspective in policy/ program formulation, its implementation and review. 
GB entails dissection of the Government budgets to establish its gender differential impacts and to ensure that gender commitments are translated in to budgetary commitments.
The rationale for gender budgeting arises from recognition of the fact that national budgets impact men and women differently through the pattern of resource allocation. Women, constitute 48% of India’s population, but they lag behind men on many social indicators like health, education, economic opportunities, etc. 
Hence, they warrant special attention due to their vulnerability and lack of access to resources. 
The way Government budgets allocate resources, has the potential to transform these gender inequalities. In view of this, Gender Budgeting, as a tool for achieving gender mainstreaming, has been propagated.
Indian Budget:-
Since 2005-06, the Expenditure Division of the Ministry of Finance has been issuing a note on Gender Budgeting as a part of the Budget Circular every year.
This is compiled and incorporated in the form of Statement 20 as a part of the Expenditure Budget Document Volume 1 by the Expenditure Division of the Ministry of Finance. 
This GB Statement comprises two parts- Part A and Part B.

• Part A reflects Women Specific Schemes, i.e. those which have 100% allocation for women.
• Part B reflects Pro Women Schemes, i.e. those where at least 30% of the allocation is for women.

Gender Budgeting Cells (GBCs) in Union Government:

The GBCs are envisaged to serve as focal points for coordinating gender budgeting initiatives within their Ministries and across Departments. So far 56 Ministries/Department have confirmed setting up of a cell/nominating a nodal person.

Ministry of Women and Child Development, in collaboration with UN Women, has also developed a Manual and Handbook for Gender Budgeting for Gender Budget Cells for Central Ministries and Departments.

Krishnadeva Rai: The Ruler

Krishnadeva Rai was a ruler of Vijayanagar Empire from 1509 AD to 1529 AD.

As patron of Art & Culture:-

He built some magnificent temples in Vijayanagara City. 

He was a patron of Telugu literature and himself composed the poetic work "Amuktamalyada" on the life of Andal, the tamil Bhakti poetess.

His court was adorned with eight poets known popularly as "Ashtadiggajas". 

• They are Allasani Peddana, Mukku Thimmana, Dhurjati, Ramaraja Bhushana, Tenali Ramakrishna, Pingali Surana, Ayyalraju Ramabadhruda and Madaygiri Mallana.

We know much about Vijayanagara Empire from inscriptions, books and buildings of that period. We get insights into daily life, the administration and social organization of the kingdom.  

Of particular value are the detailed accounts left by travelers from several countries- Nicolo Conti from Italy who visited Vijayanagara in 1420 AD, Abdul Razzak the persian trader who visited in 1443 AD and the Portuguese travellers Domingo Paes and Fernao Nuniz also visited the Vijayanagara Empire during his reign.

Westerlies

Westerlies:-

Winds blow all the year round from the Atlantic Ocean towards Europe. Since they blow from the west, these winds are called "westerlies".

(Actually these winds blow from the Southwest towards the Northeast)

These winds are warmer than the land temperature and are also moist. The climate of the Western Europe is affected by these warm and moist winds all the year.

Western Europe: Showers all the year round-

The westerlies which blow throughout the year also bring ample moisture to northern and western Europe. Since these winds blow from the sea, they carry lots of moisture and regularly cause rainfall. This is why it rains throughout the year in northern and western Europe. 

Western Europe also benefits from the gulf stream. The warm currents are very good for fish breeding as they contain ample food materials for the fishes. As a result, the fishery industry is very well developed in the North Sea near Britain. This part of the North Sea is called "Dogger Bank". 

Peninsulas:-

Landmasses that are surrounded by the sea on three sides and connected to the mainland on the fourth side are called Peninsulas.

ex: Italy is a peninsula. Norway and Sweden are also a part of the peninsula, known as Scandinavian Peninsula.

Bays & Gulfs:-

Bays and gulfs are parts of the sea enclosed by land on three sides. In a  bay, the land curves inwards and the mouth of the bay is usually wide as in the case of Bay of Bengal.

A gulf is a narrow inlet of the sea and has a narrow mouth. The entire Baltic Sea is a large gulf. 



Importance of Bays and Gulfs:

Since the bays and gulfs are protected from the storms of the high seas, they are very useful for building harbors where ships can be safely anchored and cargo can be loaded or unloaded. 

Questions by an Aspirant

Q: 1-  TIME TABLE : I've tried making so many but I failed, following is not the problem but accommodating everything is. Large portions of the syllabus are very dynamic hence I find it difficult to allot specific time to it. Also is a problem to include time for revision, for solving papers. I know revision is a must but can't seem to figure out how frequently it is to be done. How much time should I set aside for revision and paper solving?

A: First things first, One should try to cover the basics religiously. This means Modern History, Art & Culture, Geography (Both India and World), Polity (starting from constitution and further) and Environment (One of the most important one, these days). 

Current Affairs is really important these days, which can be covered by reading two newspapers (The Hindu + Business Standard) supplemented by a monthly magazine like Civil Services Chronicle + Yojana. 

Then comes the internet surfing part. There is a lot of information which is not present in the books or magazines and even the newspapers. Try to read PIB and each ministry's websites for current policy related issues. Specially Ministry of Finance, Ministry of External Affairs etc.

Q:2- ETHICS : how should I go around preparing that?

A: Buy a good book for Ethics. One from TATA macgraw hills by Mr. Reddy is good enough. After that read the 2nd ARC committee reports on ethics. Try to write the answers of the questions asked in the past. Do not over prepare for this paper. Be your natural self and write answers with empathy and courage.

Q:3 ECONOMY : this is my weakest area. Will mere Basics suffice or I should lay more emphasis on it no matter how much time it takes?

A: For economy read a good business newspaper everyday. Supplement it with a good book on economy basics. After that read some good reports on RBI website and Ministry of Finance. Try visiting portals of IMF, World Bank, OECD etc.

Q: 4-  CURRENT AFFAIRS : Apart from newspaper did you refer to any specific magazines? If so which ones and how frequently?

A: Yes. Civil Services Chronicle or any other monthly with Yojana. Try to read EPW online. They have downloadable articles. Make a collection. go through Gktoday type portals as well. You can subscribe to a postal coaching on current affairs. Vision Ias is good.

Q: 5- NCERT: can one do without them?

A: One time NCERT read is a must. As mentioned in the prospectus, the questions will be of 10th and 12th level. The question pattern is based on NCERT books. So, you must finish these atleast once.

Q: 6-  SCIENCE: being from a science background I feel reluctant to pick up basic books for science (for prelims). So, if u say , maybe that will encourage me to do that, :p . So should I pick up ncert from 6th onwards for general science?

A: No need to pick up general science. The questions will be more from current affairs in science. Read science section of newspapers and follow such news like Black Hole, Nobel Prizes, New Discoveries and build on them through online search.

Q: 7- INDIAN SOCIETY:did you refer to ram ahuja for this? Or u prepared this on your own?

A: For case studies, this book is good. I would suggest get the subject study material from a good coaching. It saves effort on making notes and covers all the topics. Then maybe these good books, to write better answers. Priority should be that fundamentals are clear. You know enough about the thinkers and their theories. 

Q:8- HISTORY: medieval and ancient: how much emphasis should be given to that?!

A: For art and culture ancient is a must. Medieval is brief reading. Focus on modern more. Try to cover Budhism, Jainism, etc. They are most important.

Q:9- Coaching: did you join any test series or centres..which one should I go for if at all.

A: Not necessary but they do help. They make well researched notes. You can opt for postal guidance. Daily classes can be done away with if you can understand the concepts on your own. Depends on your comfort level.

Global Competitiveness Index

Chhau Dance

• With origins shrouded in mystery, the Chhau dancer communicates inner emotions and themes through cadences of body flexions, movements and kinetic suggestions. 
• The word Chhau is interpreted differently by scholars. ‘Shadow’, 
• ‘Disguise’ and ‘Image’ are the most common interpretations due to the extensive use of masks in this dance form. 
• The martial movements of Chhau have led to another interpretation of the word as meaning ‘to attack stealthily’ or ‘to hunt’.
• Three styles of Chhau exist born from the three different regions of Seraikella (Bihar), Purulia (West Bengal), and Mayurbhanj (Orissa). 
• Martial movements, strong rhythmic statements and dynamic use of space are characteristic of Chhau. 
• Seraikella Chhau flourished under royal patronage. Its vigorous martial character made it suitable only for male dancers.
• The princes were not only patrons but also dancers, teachers and mask-making experts.
• The Seraikella masks are similar to those used in the Noh dance of Japan and the Wayang Wong of Java.
• Purulia Chhau uses masks which is a highly developed craft in the region. The barren land with its tribal inhabitants and multi-layered influences of Vedic literature, Hinduism and martial folk-lore have all combined to shape the Purulia Chhau dances which have only one message - the triumph of good over evil. 
• Mayurbhanj Chhau has highly developed movements, no masks and a more chiselled vocabulary than the other two Chhau styles. Like Seraikella Chhau, it had also thrived under royal patronage and is considered a link between the earthy Indian dance movements and the flying, springing elevations of Western dance. 
• Unlike other Indian Classical dance forms, vocal music in Chhau hardly exists! Instrumental music and a variety of drums like the Dhol, Dhumba, Nagara, Dhansa and Chadchadi provide the accompaniment. Combining folk, tribal and martial traditions and yet covering the three aspects of Nritta, Nritya and Natya as well as the Tandava and Lasya aspects of classical dance, the Chhau dances are complex combinations of Folk and Classical motifs.

The Chhau dance is indigenous to the eastern part of India. It originated as a martial art and contains vigourous movements and leaps. During the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, many of the princely rulers of the Orissa region took a keen interest in the development of this art. They maintained troupes that performed on special occasions and festivals.

• Some Chhau dances use large stylized masks. The depiction of birds and animals is a distinctive feature. There are also heroic dances with sword, bow or shield, with which dancers demonstrate their dexterity. In keeping with the martial origins of Chhau, some of the themes include the depiction of mythological heroes, such as Parashurama, Mahadev, Indrajit and others, from the Mahabharata and Ramayana epics. Over the course of time, female characters and more diverse themes were added.
  There are three recognized schools or styles of Chhau. These are the Seraikella, Purulia and Mayurbhanj varieties. Mayurbhanj Chhau dancers do not wear masks. In recent times, Mayurbhanj Chhau has become popular as a medium of choreography, with its wide range of postures and movements that adapt well to modern as well as traditional treatment.

Keystone species are important in determining the ability of a large number of other species to persist in the community. 

Allopatric species: species occupying mutually exclusive geographical areas. 

Sympatric species: different species that live in the same area but are prevented from successfully reproducing by a reproductive isolating mechanism. 

Threatened species: May become endangered species in the near future, if proper protection measures were not taken up.

Chakiarkoothu

Chakiarkoothu
 

• This dance form is believed to have been introduced to Kerala by the early Aryan immigrants & is performed only by the members of the Chakiar caste. 

• A highly orthodox type of entertainment, it can be staged inside temples only & witnessed by the Hindus of the higher castes. 

• The theatre is known as Koothambalam. 
• The story is recited in a quasi-dramatic style with emphasis on eloquent declarations with appropriately suggestive facial expressions & hand gestures. 
• The only accompaniments are the cymbals & the drum known as the mizhavu, made of copper with a narrow mouth on which is stretched a piece of parchment. 

source: http://www.indian-heritage.org/dance/dncefrms.htm

Indira Gandhi Canal

Indira Gandhi Canal

The Indira Gandhi Canal is the longest canal in India and the largest irrigation project in the world.

Indira Gandhi Canal is 649 km long and consists of Rajasthan feeder canal and Rajasthan main canal and runs through 167 km in Punjab and Haryana and remaining 492 km in Rajasthan.

 The canal is one of the project of Green revolution in India and also runs through The Great Thar Desert.

Khatbandi system

Up to the middle of the 18th century, the weavers appear to have enjoyed independence and freedom to sell their products to the English, the French or the Dutch or to the Indian merchants.

From 1750s, the gomastas (agents of British dependent on commission paid by the English as a percentage on the value of cloth collected by these agents) began to compel weavers to sell their products to the English.

The elimination of the French and the Dutch from competition by military means helped the process.

The weavers were bullied and harassed by the Factors, through the agency of Gomastas, to accept advance and to produce cloth.

In the 1780s this practice became systematised as the Khatbandi system: the artisans were indentured to sell exclusively to the Company under Regulations passed by the Bengal government.

Particulate matter

Particulate matter is the sum of all solid and liquid particles suspended in air many of which are hazardous. 

• This complex mixture includes both organic and inorganic particles, such as dust, pollen,soot, smoke, and liquid droplets. 
• These particles vary greatly in size, composition, and origin.

Particle size matter:-

The aerodynamic properties of particles determine how they are transported in air and how they can be removed from it. 

These properties also govern how far they get into the air passages of the respiratory system. Additionally, they provide information on the chemical composition and the sources of particles.

Particles have irregular shapes and their aerodynamic behaviour is expressed in terms of the diameter of an idealised sphere. 

The sampling and description of particles is based on this aerodynamic diameter, which is usually simply referred to as ‘particle size’. 

Particles having the same aerodynamic diameter may have different dimensions and shapes. Some airborne particles are over 10,000 times bigger than others in terms of aerodynamic diameter.

Based on size, particulate matter is often divided into two main groups:

• The coarse fraction contains the larger particles with a size ranging from 2.5 to 10 µm (PM₁₀ - PM_2.5).
• The fine fraction contains the smaller ones with a size up to 2.5 µm (PM_2.5). The particles in the fine fraction which are smaller than 0.1 µm are called ultrafine particles.

How are particles formed?

Coarse particles are produced by the mechanical break-up of larger solid particles. The coarse fraction can include dust from roads, agricultural processes, uncovered soil or mining operations, as well as non-combustible materials released when burning fossil fuels. Pollen grains, mould spores, and plant and insect parts can also contribute to the coarse fraction. Finally, evaporation of sea spray can produce large particles near coasts.

Fine particles are largely formed from gases. Ultrafine particles (up to 0.1 µm) are formed by nucleation, which is the initial stage in which gas becomes a particle. These particles can grow up to a size of 1 µm either through condensation, when additional gas condensates on the particles, or through coagulation, when two or more particles combine to form a larger particle. Particles produced by the intermediate reactions of gases in the atmosphere are called secondary particles.

• Combustion of fossil fuels such as coal, oil, and petrol can produce
• coarse particles from the release of non-combustible materials such as fly ash,
• fine particles from the condensation of materials vaporized during combustion, and
• secondary particles through the atmospheric reactions of sulphur oxides and nitrogen oxides initially released as gases.