Pillar edicts of Asoka

The pillar edicts of Asoka may be divided into two groups:

• Major Edicts, and
• Minor Edicts

Major Pillar Edicts:-

There are seven major pillar edicts:

• Pillar Edict I
  • It mentions Asoka's principle to protect people through dhamma, to administer affairs according to dhamma, to please the people with dhamma, and to guard the empire with dhamma.
• Pillar Edict II
  • It defines dhamma as a minimum of sins, many virtues, compassion, liberality, truthfulness and pu­rity.
• Pillar Edict III
  • It exhorts people to consider that cruelty, harshness, anger, pride and envy are sins, the indulgence in which is ruinous.
• Pillar Edict IV
  • Engraved in the 26th year of Asoka's rule, this edict deals with the duties of rajukas.
• Pillar Edict V
  • It provides a list of animals and birds which should not be killed on some days and others which are not to be killed at all.
  • It also mentions the release of 25 prisoners by Asoka.
• Pillar Edict VI
  • It mentions Asoka's engraving of dhamma policy after 12 years of his rule.
• Pillar Edict VII
  • Inscribed in the twenty-eighth year of Asoka's rule, it describes at length the works done by Asoka for spreading dhamma policy.
• Asoka's seven major pillar edicts have been found at the following places:
  • Topra (Delhi),
  • Meerut,
  • Kausambi (Allahabad),
  • Rampurva (Champaran),
  • Lauriya- Nanrlangarh (Champaran),
  • Lauriya Areraj (Champaran) and
  • Mehrauli (Delhi)

Minor Pillar Edicts:-

• The Minor Pillar Edicts have been found in Sanchi, Saranath, Rummindei and Nigalisagar.
  • These edicts deal with Buddhist pilgrim centres, pilgrimage and solution of differences in the Buddhist religion.
• Rummindei Pillar Inscription
  • It mentions Asoka's visit to Lumbini, the birth place of Lord Buddha.
  • Asoka exempted Lumbini from paying tax, and fixed its contribution of grain at one-eighth.
• Nigalisagar Pillar Inscription
  • It mentions Asoka's visit to Konakamana stupa in the fifteenth year of his rule.
• Schism Edict
• The pillar edicts at Sarnath and Sanchi are known as Schism edicts.
• These edicts are addressed to dharmamahamatras.

Language of the Asokan Inscriptions

• Asoka's inscrip­tions are written in four languages-Aramaic, Greek, Ira­nian, and Prakrit.
• Four scripts have been used in these inscriptions-Aramaic, Greek, Brahmi and Kharoshthi.
• The Mansehra and Shahbajgarhi inscriptions are in the Kharosthi script, while the Kandahar inscription is in Greek and Aramaic scripts.
• The remaining inscriptions are in the Brahmi script.

Therukoothu

• Therukoothu, the most popular form of folk drama of Tamil Nadu, literally means a “Street play”.
• It is Performed mostly at the time of annual temple festivals of Mariamman (Rain Goddess) to achieve rich harvest.
• At the core of the extensive repertoire of Therukoothu there is a cycle of eight plays based on the life of Draupadi.
• The costumes and makeup is vivid and bright with enchanting colours.
• The perfomance is held in an open air theatre called ‘shabai’. It is approximately 14 feet wide and 16 feet long. 
• The themes are usually drawn from Mahabharata. Some popular items on the therukoothu repertoire include Draupathy Vastraparanam (disrobing of Draupathy) Karna Moksham (defeat of Karna), Prahalada Charithram (story of Prahalda), Bagiratha Prayathanam (Bagiratha’s efforts to bring Ganges earth) Kandavavana Thaganam etc. 

Brahmavadini

Brahmavadini or "an expounder of the Veda" are those women who composed any hymns of the Vedas .

• Brahmavādinī literally means ‘the woman who speaks about Brahman’.

In the ancient days, women were divided into two classes:

1. The brahmavādinīs - 
• The brahmavādinīs underwent the sacrament of upanayana, kept the Vedic fires, studied the Vedas under their own father and lived by begging the food, also under the parental roof. 
• They had samā- vartana (valedictory rite at the end of the period of Vedic studies) also. 
• They could then marry and settle down in life. 
• The name ‘brahmavādinī’ seems to have been given due to the fact that the girl could recite (vad = to speak or recite) the Vedas (Brahma = Veda). 
• It might also have been applied to those women who were interested in discussing about Brahman, the Absolute, and perform spiritual practices to realize the same. 
• May be due to this reason that the Brihadāranyaka Upaniṣad calls Maitreyi, wife of the sage Yājñavalkya, as a ‘brahmavādinī’.
2. The sadyovadhus - 
• ‘Sadyovadhus’ were those who became vadhus or brides straight-away, (sadyas = at once) on the attainment of puberty, without undergoing the training in the Vedic studies. 
• In their case, the upanayana ceremony was performed just before marriage, as a formality.

• The practice of performing upanayana for women and teaching them the Vedas also, seems to have disappeared even by the time of the Manusmrti (composed much earlier than A. D. 200). 
• The word brahmavādinī is sometimes applied to the famous Gayatrīmantra also.

The prominent among them were Lopamudra, Vishwawara, Sikta, Ghosha and Maitreyi.

• Maitreyi, (the wife of Yajnavalkya) is accredited with about ten hymns in Rig Veda
• Two suktas (hymns) of the tenth Mandala (book) of Rigveda, 39 and 40, each containing 14 verses, have been attributed to Ghosha.
• The first hymn praises the Ashvins. 
• The second hymn is a personal wish expressing her intimate feelings and desires for married life.

• Lopamudra was the wife of the sage Agastya. A hymn in the Rigveda is attributed to her.

Source: Wikipedia

Krishnadeva Rai: The Ruler

Krishnadeva Rai was a ruler of Vijayanagar Empire from 1509 AD to 1529 AD.

As patron of Art & Culture:-

He built some magnificent temples in Vijayanagara City. 

He was a patron of Telugu literature and himself composed the poetic work "Amuktamalyada" on the life of Andal, the tamil Bhakti poetess.

His court was adorned with eight poets known popularly as "Ashtadiggajas". 

• They are Allasani Peddana, Mukku Thimmana, Dhurjati, Ramaraja Bhushana, Tenali Ramakrishna, Pingali Surana, Ayyalraju Ramabadhruda and Madaygiri Mallana.

We know much about Vijayanagara Empire from inscriptions, books and buildings of that period. We get insights into daily life, the administration and social organization of the kingdom.  

Of particular value are the detailed accounts left by travelers from several countries- Nicolo Conti from Italy who visited Vijayanagara in 1420 AD, Abdul Razzak the persian trader who visited in 1443 AD and the Portuguese travellers Domingo Paes and Fernao Nuniz also visited the Vijayanagara Empire during his reign.

Chakiarkoothu

Chakiarkoothu
 

• This dance form is believed to have been introduced to Kerala by the early Aryan immigrants & is performed only by the members of the Chakiar caste. 

• A highly orthodox type of entertainment, it can be staged inside temples only & witnessed by the Hindus of the higher castes. 

• The theatre is known as Koothambalam. 
• The story is recited in a quasi-dramatic style with emphasis on eloquent declarations with appropriately suggestive facial expressions & hand gestures. 
• The only accompaniments are the cymbals & the drum known as the mizhavu, made of copper with a narrow mouth on which is stretched a piece of parchment. 

source: http://www.indian-heritage.org/dance/dncefrms.htm

Dance in India

Dance in India has an unbroken tradition of over 2,000 years. Its themes are derived from mythology,  legends and classical literature. Its two main divisions are classical and folk.

• In traditional Indian culture the function of dance was to give symbolic expression to religious ideas. The figure of Lord Shiva as Nataraja represents the creation and destruction of the cosmic cycle.

Classical dance forms are based on ancient dance discipline and have rigid rules of presentation. Important among them are Bharata Natyam, Kathakali, Kathak, Manipuri, Kuchipudi and Odissi.

Features:-

• Mudra or hand gestures are used by the artists as a short-hand sign language to narrate a story and to demonstrate certain concepts.

• Many classical dances include facial expressions as an integral part of the dance form.

• Nartanam: Dances performed inside the sanctum of the temple according to the rituals.

• Carnatakam Dances were performed in royal courts.

A. Bharata Natyam (Tamil Nadu)

• The Abhinaya Darpana by Nandikesvara is one of the main sources of textual material, for the study of the technique and grammar of body movement in Bharatnatyam Dance.

• The style was kept alive by the devadasis, who were young girls 'gifted' by their parents to the temples and were married to the gods.

• The dance movements are characterized by bent legs, while feet keep rhythm. Hands may be used in a series of mudra.

• Instruments used in Bharatnatyam are Mridangam, Violin, Veena, Flute and Talam.

B. Kathakali ( Kerala)

• The word Kathakali literally means "Story-Play".

• Kathakali is known for its heavy, elaborate makeup and costumes. The dancers wear large head dresses, and the different colors of the face are extended with moulded lime.

• Kathakali dance presents themes derived from the Ramayana, the Mahabharata and other Hindu epics, mythologies and legends.

• Kathakali is traditionally performed by boys and men, even for female roles.

• Instruments used in Kathakali are Chenda, Maddalam, Cymbals and Ela taalam.

C. Kathak (North India)

• Kathak, meaning "the art of storytelling."

• It is performed by both men and women.

• The movements include intricate footwork accented by bells worn around the ankles and stylized gesture adapted from normal body language.

• The advent of Islamic rule in the 13th century greatly influenced the Indian culture, having a direct impact on Kathak. (It was introduced as a form of entertainment in the courts and developed its own distinct and individualistic style).

• Lucknow, Banaras and Jaipur are recognized as the three schools.
  • Instruments used in Kathak are Pakwaj, Tabla, Harmonium, Sarengi and Talam (cymbals).

D. Manipuri( Manipur)

• The most striking part of Manipur dance is its colorful decoration, lightness of dancing foot, delicacy of abhinaya (drama), smooth and graceful movements.

• The Manipuri dance form is mostly ritualistic and draws heavily from the rich culture of the state of Manipur.

• Among the important feature of the Manipuri repertoire are the Sankirtana and the Raas Leela, based on the devotional theme of Krishna and Radha.

• Another vibrant feature of Manipuri is the Pung Cholam or Drum dance, in which dancers play on the drum known as Pung.

• The Lai Haroba, a ritualistic dance depicting the Creation, is considered the precursor of Manipuri as seen today.

• Instruments used in Manipuri are Pung and Cymbals.

E. Kuchipudi (Andhra Pradesh)

• Kuchipudi exhibits scenes from the Hindu epics, legends and mythological tales through a combination of music, dance and acting.

• Traditionally the dance was performed by men, even the female roles, although now it is predominantly performed by women.

• Taranagam is the main unique piece of Kuchpudi repertoire, also known as plate (made by brass) dance. In that the dancer dance upon a brass plate, placing the feet upon the raised edges.

• Instruments used in Kuchipudi are Mridangam, Violin, Veena, Flute and Talam.

Odissi (Odisha)

• Originating in the Devadasi tradition, it is predominantly a dance for women, with postures that replicate those found in temple sculptures.

• Like other Indian classical dance forms, Odissi has two major facets:

i. Nritta, in which ornamental patterns are created using body movements in space and time.

ii. Abhinaya, or facial expressions are used to interpret a story or theme.

• Tribhangi, (thrice deflected posture) in which the body is bent in three places, the shape of a helix.

• Instruments were used in Odissi are Pakwaj, table, harmonium, flute and cymbals.

G. Sattriya (Assam)

• Sattriya Nritya was usually performed in the Sattras (Assam monasteries) in a highly ritialistic manner by male dancers alone.

• The core of Sattriya Nritya has usually been mythological stories.

• Dressed in white costumes and turbans, head gears, they include khol-patital, boratal-cymbals playing, performing dance, creating soundscapes, floor patterns and choreographic designs.

• Both solo and group numbers enrich its presentation. The dresses are usually made of pat, a type of silk produced in Assam.

Buddhist Literature

The Tripitaka

The Tripitaka is the earliest known collection of buddhist writings. Initially, they were composed orally, but were written down by the 3rd century bc. 

• The word means "the three baskets," (tri=three, pitaka=baskets), and refers to the way the texts were first recorded. 
• The early writing material was long, narrow leaves, which were sewn together on one side. Bunches of these were then stored in baskets. 
• This is a large collection, running 45 volumes in one modern edition.

The baskets are divided by subject matter. 

1. The first basket is the Discipline Basket (Vinaya Pitaka), which set out the rules and guidelines for living the monastic life of the sangha. 
• It focuses first on the 227 regulations for monks (Bhikkhus), which concern everything from basic morality to robe-making, the additional rules for the nuns (Bhikkhunis), and then on guidelines for interaction between the monks and nuns and the laity. 
2. The second basket is the Discourse Basket (Sutra Pitaka) and it contains records of the Buddha's teachings and sermons. 
• These discourses of the Buddha present matters of theology and moral behavior for all buddhists. 
3. The third basket is that of the Special Teachings (Abhidharma Pitaka). 
• It essentially is a miscellaneous collection of short writings containing everything from songs and poetry to stories of the Buddha and his previous lives. 
• One text, the Dharmapada, contains simple discussions of key buddhist concepts based on the Buddha's daily life. 

The Sutras:-

While Mahayana Buddhism reveres the Tripitaka as a holy text, they add to it a total of 2184 sacred writings. 

• Most of these writings go under the name of Sutra. The Sutras were put into writing between the second century bce and the second century ce, during the time the split between Theravada and Mahayana developed. 

The most important Sutra is the Lotus Sutra. It depicts a sermon by the Buddha to the assembled Bodhisattvas, buddhas and other beings in which he teaches the basis of Mahayana Buddhism. He emphasizes the goal of becoming a Bodhisattva, the notion of realizing one's own buddha-nature, and so on. 

The Heart Sutra also plays an important role in Buddhism. It is short, only a page or two long, but it sets out the character of nirvana, Emptiness, and Ultimate Reality as perceived within Mahayana. 

• In it, the Bodhisattva Avalokiteshvara describes the nature of the five skandhas: body (=form), feelings, senses, tendencies, and consciousness. It is often chanted and discussed, especially in Vajrayana. 

A Sutra called "Land of Bliss" describes the Pure Land of Amitabha Buddha. It relates the vow of the buddha that enabled him to create the Land, and discussed what people must do to enter the Pure Land.

The Sutras of the Perfection of Wisdom (Prajna-paramita) provides the basis for Mahayana's understanding of the key notion of "Emptiness." Nagarjuna used this text as a basis for his thought and writings. The Heart Sutra is part of this larger text.

Buddhist Philosophy

The ideals at the heart of Buddhism are collectively known as the ‘Three Jewels’, or the ‘Three Treasures’. 

These are theBuddha (the yellow jewel), the Dharma (the blue jewel), and the Sangha (the red jewel).

• The Buddha refers both to the historical Buddha and to the ideal of Buddhahood itself.
• The Dharma primarily means the teachings of the Buddha, or the truth he understood. 
• The third of the Three Jewels is the Sangha or the spiritual community.

Four Noble Truths:-

The Buddha's first sermon at Sarnath after his Enlightenment centered on the Four Noble Truths, which are the foundation of Buddhism. 

The truths are:

1. The truth of suffering (dukkha)
2. The truth of the cause of suffering (samudaya)
3. The truth of the end of suffering (nirhodha)
4. The truth of the path that frees us from suffering (magga)

• The First Noble Truth often is translated as "Life is suffering."
• The Second Noble Truth teaches that the cause of suffering is craving or thirst (tanha).
• The Third Noble Truth holds out hope for a cure for the craving. The Buddha taught that through diligent practice, we can put an end to craving. Ending the craving after satisfaction is enlightenment (bodhi, "awakened"). The enlightened being exists in a state called Nirvana.
• In the Fourth Noble Truth, the Buddha prescribes the treatment for our illness: The Eightfold Path.

Eightfold Path:-

The Eightfold Path of Buddhism is the means by which enlightenment may be realized. 

The Buddha first explained the Eightfold Path in his first sermon at Sarnath after his enlightenment.

The Eightfold Path is:

1. Right Understanding, 
2. Right Intention/Emotion, 
3. Right Speech, 
4. Right Action, 
5. Right Livelihood, 
6. Right Effort, 
7. Right Mindfulness, 
8. Right Concentration, 

Ajanta Caves

The caves attained the name from a nearby village named "Ajanta" located about 12 km. 

These caves were discovered by an Army Officer in the Madras Regiment of the British Army in 1819 during one of his hunting expeditions. 

The caves, famous for its murals, are the finest surviving examples of Indian art, particularly painting.

These caves are excavated in horse–shoe shaped bend of rock surface nearly 76 m in height overlooking a narrow stream known as Waghora. 

The location of this valley provided a calm and serene environment for the Buddhist monks who retreated at these secluded places during the rainy seasons. 

This retreat also provided them with enough time for furthering their religious pursuits through intellectual discourses for a considerably longer period. 

The caves were excavated in different periods (circa. 2nd century B.C. to 6th century A.D.) according to the necessity. 

In all, total 30 excavations were hewn out of rock which also include an unfinished one. 

• Out of these, five (cave no. 9, 10, 19, 26, and 29) are chaityagrihas and the rest are viharas. 

A chaitya is a Buddhist shrine or prayer hall with a stupa at one end. In modern texts on Indian architecture, the term chaitya-griha is often used to denote an assembly or prayer hall that houses a stupa.

Vihara is the Sanskrit and Pali term for a Buddhist monastery. It originally meant "a secluded place in which to walk", and referred to "dwellings" or "refuges" used by wandering monks during the rainy season.

A Stupa is a mound-like or hemispherical structure containing relics (typically the remains of Buddha or Buddhist monks or nuns), and used as a place of meditation.

In date and style also, these caves can be divided into two broad groups. 

• The earliest excavations belong to the Hinayana phase of Buddhism of which similar examples could also be seen at Bhaja, Kondane, Pitalkhora, Nasik, etc. 
• In total, 5 caves at Ajanta belong to this phase, viz., 9 & 10 which are chaityagrihas and 8, 12, 13, & 15A which are viharas. 
• These caves are datable to the pre-Christian era, the earliest among them being Cave 10 dating from the second century B.C. 

The object of worship is a stupa here and these caves exhibit the imitation of wooden construction to the extent that the rafters and beams are also sculpted even though they are non-functional.

The addition of new excavations could be noticed again during the period of Vakatakas, the contemporaries of the Imperial Guptas. The caves were caused to be excavated by royal patronage and the feudatories under the Vakatakas as illustrated by the inscriptions found in the caves. 

Varahadeva, the minister of Vakataka king Harishena (A.D. 475-500) dedicated Cave 16 to the Buddhist Sangha while Cave 17 was the gift of a prince (who subjugated Asmaka) feudatory to the same king. 

The flurry of activities at Ajanta was between mid 5th century A.D. to mid 6th century A.D. However, Hieun Tsang, the famous Chinese traveller who visited India during the first half of 7th century A.D. has left a vivid and graphic description of the flourishing Buddhist establishment here even though he did not visit the caves. 

A solitary Rashtrakuta inscription in cave no. 26 indicates its use during 8th – 9th centuries A.D. 

The second phase departs from the earlier one with the introduction of new pattern in layout as well as the centrality of Buddha image, both in sculpture as well as in paintings.

Ajanta Paintings:-

The world famous paintings at Ajanta also fall into two broad phases. 

1. The earliest is noticed in the form of fragmentary specimens in cave nos. 9 & 10, which are datable to second century B.C. The headgear and other ornaments of the images in these paintings resemble the bas-relief sculpture of Sanchi and Bharhut.
2. The second phase of paintings started around 5th – 6th centuries A.D. and continued for the next two centuries. The specimen of these exemplary paintings of Vakataka period could be noticed in cave nos. 1, 2, 16 and 17. 

Theme of the paintings-

The main theme of the paintings is the depiction of various Jataka stories, different incidents associated with the life of Buddha, and the contemporary events and social life also. 

The ceiling decoration invariably consists of decorative patterns, geometrical as well as floral.

The paintings were executed after elaborate preparation of the rock surface initially. The rock surface was left with chisel marks and grooves so that the layer applied over it can be held in an effective manner. 

The ground layer consists of a rough layer of ferruginous earth mixed with rock-grit or sand, vegetable fibres, paddy husk, grass and other fibrous material of organic origin on the rough surface of walls and ceilings. 

A second coat of mud and ferruginous earth mixed with fine rock-powder or sand and fine fibrous vegetable material was applied over the ground surface. 

Then the surface was finally finished with a thin coat of lime wash. Over this surface, outlines are drawn boldly, then the spaces are filled with requisite colours in different shades and tones to achieve the effect of rounded and plastic volumes. 

The colours and shades utilised also vary from red and yellow ochre, terra verte, to lime, kaolin, gypsum, lamp black and lapis lazuli. The chief binding material used here was glue. 

The paintings at Ajanta are not frescoes as they are painted with the aid of a binding agent, whereas in fresco the paintings are executed while the lime wash is still wet which, thereby acts as an intrinsic binding agent.

Tattwabodhinī Sabhā & Akshay Kumar Datta

The Tattwabodhinī Sabhā ("Truth Propagating/Searching Society") was a group started in Calcutta on 6 October 1839 as a splinter group of the Brahmo Samaj. 

The founding member was Debendranath Tagore, previously of the Brahmo Samaj, eldest son of influential entrepreneur Dwarkanath Tagore, and father to the renowned poet Rabindranath Tagore. 

• In 1859, the Tattwabodhinī Sabhā were dissolved back into the Brāhmo Samāj by Debendranath Tagore.

Among its first members were the "two giants of Hindu reformation and Bengal Renaissance, Akshay Kumar Datta "who in 1839 emerged from the life of an anonymous squalor-beset individual" and Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar the "indigenous modernizer".

• The main objective of the Sabhā was to promote a more rational and humanist form of Hinduism based on the Vedānta, the Upanishads that form the last part of the Vedās.

Akshay Kumar Datta:-

Akshay Kumar Datta (5 July 1820 – 18 May 1886) was born in Chupi in Bardhaman. He was one of the initiators of the Bengal Renaissance.

In 1839, he joined the Tattwabodhini Sabha and soon became its assistant secretary. He was appointed a teacher of the Tattwabodhini Pathsala the next year and in 1843, Tattwabodhini Patrika was published as mouthpiece of both the Tattwabodhini Sabha and Brahmo Samaj. 

• Tattwabodhini Patrika came out at the time when Christian Missionaries were trying to sow the seed of their belief in the minds of the people in Bengal.The patrika was brought out to rewind the Hindu society and religion and the spirit of young Bengal. Through this monthly magazine, Akshay Kumar Dutta first aroused the sense of patriotism in the minds of the people. He edited the paper from 1843 to 1855. 
• He said "we are living under foreign domination, getting education in foreign language, tolerating foreign oppression". 
• He further said, referring to the activities of the Christian Missionary, that "the foreign religion might one day become the religion of this country".
• When the Missionary-Hindu controversy subsided, the Patrika began to take a greater interest on other issues. It began to show a deep concern for the miserable economic condition of the people of the province. Patrika pointed out that while an Indian employee was offered Rs. 100 to Rs. 150, a European in the same position got more than Rs. 1000. Thus, the patrika remarked "The Indians are selling their liberty at a low price".

He was the first editor of the journal and contributed substantially towards the development of prose writing in Bengali. 

He was the first Bengali writer to seriously work for the propagation of a modern scientific outlook, writing books on Physics and Geography in Bengali. He also wrote profusely on astronomy, mathematics and geology. 

• Akshay Kumar Datta was the first person in the Brahmo Samaj to boldly proclaim that the Vedas were not infallible. 
• He succeeded in convincing Debendranath Tagore in this respect and ultimately Brahmo Samaj adopted the thinking that while it respected all religious scriptures it did not consider any as infallible. 
• It was in this perspective that Debendranath Tagore wrote Brahmo Dharma.

His magnum opus was the two-part Bharatbarshiya Upasak Sampraday. The brilliant introductions to the two volumes of this book evince his profound philosophical, linguistic and scientific learning and depth. Among others, Max Muller, Monier-Williams and Rajendralal Mitra were greatly impressed by his profound scholarship.